By V.A. Mohamad Ashrof
Zionists cling to and ceaselessly trumpet the belief—reflected in global media—that Jews form a distinct ethnic group, that Israel is the fulfilment of God’s promise to Abraham, and that the Jews living in Israel today are the direct descendants of King David. A book that throws a wrench into this narrative is ‘The Invention of the Jewish People ’, published in 2009. (1)
This book sent shockwaves through Israeli academia. Shlomo Sand, a historian at Tel Aviv University, boldly challenges the very foundation of Israel’s national ideology in his hard-hitting 332-page work. An English translation of Sand’s book was published in the US and Britain in 2009. The French translation, published by Layard in 2010, was hailed as the best work in modern history and politics. The book has also been translated into Arabic, Turkish, Japanese, and Indonesian, spreading like wildfire across intellectual circles.
Born in Austria in 1946, Sand moved to Israel with his family in 1948.
Origins of Ashkenazi Jews
In the 1920s, shortly after World War I, Henry Ford, founder of the Ford Motor Company, published a four-volume work called The International Jew, (2) which argued that only a fraction of contemporary Jews was of ancient biblical Jewish heritage. Of course, Ford’s work is riddled with anti-Semitic propaganda and has been soundly discredited by scholars. In 1951, Colonel John Beatty, a US military intelligence officer, published The Iron Curtain Over America (3), a 265-page book presenting evidence that Eastern European Jews were of Khazar-Mongol descent and had no genetic connection to the Israelites.
This theory was later expanded upon in The Thirteenth Tribe (4), published in 1976 by world-renowned author Arthur Koestler (1905-1983). Koestler meticulously argued that Ashkenazi Jews were Khazars who converted to Judaism in the 8th century AD in the Caucasus region. He asserted that Ashkenazi Jews had no historical connection to the Jews of biblical tradition, and that European anti-semitism was built on a house of cards sustained by ignorance. One of Koestler’s key objectives was to demonstrate that European Jews were not the Palestinian Jews of biblical lore, thus rendering accusations of Christ-killing against Jews as baseless as a mirage in the desert. It is crucial to note that nine out of ten modern Jews belong to the Ashkenazi lineage.
The Khazars, originally from the Caucasus, later migrated westward, settling in present-day Hungary, Ukraine, Poland, Belarus, Lithuania, and Germany. The Jews of Poland, Lithuania, and Romania, who speak Yiddish, are all of Khazar origin.
Sand traces the roots of Eastern European Jewry to the Khazar Empire. (5) In 740 AD, the Khazar ruler Bulan took the plunge and converted to Judaism, with many of his subjects following suit. Jewish history recognizes the Khazar state as a Jewish state in its own right.
Sand’s Findings
Sand opens his study of Jewish nationalism with a quote from Karl Deiss: “A nation is a people who agree on a common error about their origin and who are united in common hostility towards their neighbours.” (6)
Nationalist fervour swept through Germany, giving rise to the infamous slogan “Germany for the Germans,” which marginalized Jews, Slavs, and Roma. At the same time, nationalism gained ground in Italy and Greece, where a shared language and culture formed the backbone of national identity. Sand argues that modern Jewish nationalism was reverse-engineered, influenced by German nationalism in the mid-19th century. (7) It was historian Heinrich Graetz who wove the tale of an ancient Jewish dynasty, the mass expulsion of the Jews, and their centuries-long wandering. (8) This historical fabrication was inspired by German nationalism.
Like other European national groups, Zionists painted a golden past for themselves, claiming an uninterrupted presence since antiquity. (9) Sand argues that the Nazi image of Jews as bloodsuckers was borrowed and repurposed by Zionist thinkers. When Jewish Zionist thought took root in the 1840s, the Greek concept of racial purity was at its core. He suggests that Hitler’s genocidal ideology drew inspiration from the racial theories embraced by Zionists.
Graetz coined the term ancient people for the Jews, portraying them as a lost tribe yearning for home after the destruction of Canaan. (10) Later, Moses Hess’s 1862 work Rome and Jerusalem: The Last National Question fully reflected the racial ideologies gaining traction in Europe. (11)
Since there is no historical evidence that Jews were forcibly expelled en masse, the idea of their rightful return to Israel falls apart like a house of cards, Sand observes. (12) Jewish conversion was widespread under the influence of Hellenistic culture. (13) The Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Old Testament, was produced as part of this process. The Jewish historian Josephus followed the same agenda. (14) Later, Zionism adopted the Christian narrative of Jewish exile. (15)
Sand dismantles the claim made by scholars like Martin Goodman that Jews discouraged conversion. (16) He further highlights that most ancient Jewish farmers later converted to Islam, a fact even acknowledged by Israel’s first Prime Minister, David Ben-Gurion. (17)
The Fallacy of Zionist Racism
Zionism is built on the flimsy foundation that Jews form a distinct ethnic group. In reality, Judaism has survived through a melting pot of intermarriages and conversions.
Theodor Herzl, the father of Zionism, was not religious, yet he clung to the notion that Jews were an ethnic group. Christian Zionism, too, developed its theology based on this ethnic distinction.
The Zionist movement sprang to life in the 1850s in Central and Eastern Europe, amid a tide of nationalist sentiment stretching from Vienna to Odessa. (18) Nathan Birnbaum, who coined the term Zionism, was an unabashed racist. Other early Zionist intellectuals, including Max Nordau, Martin Buber, Vladimir Jabotinsky, and Arthur Ruppin, wore their racism on their sleeves. (19)
Herzl, though secular, readily embraced the religious notion that Israel was a divine promise to the Jews through Abraham. Under this ideology, any Jew, regardless of nationality, had a golden ticket to Israeli citizenship.
But Who Is a Jew?
From Israel’s inception, the question of Jewish identity has been a legal quagmire. (20) In 1962, a Catholic priest of Jewish origin sought recognition as a Jew by nationality, but the High Court slammed the door shut on his claim. (21) The 1968 Law of Return declared that only those born to a Jewish mother, converts to Judaism, or individuals without another religious affiliation qualified as Jews. (22)
Israel, despite its lofty claims of democracy, functions as an ethnocracy, Sand argues. (23) Though he does not deny Israel’s existence, he calls for it to become an open, pluralistic, and democratic state free from the shackles of ethnic, territorial, and mythical claims.
Sand shines a light on Israel’s systemic human rights violations (24) and envisions a future where all Israeli citizens—Jewish or Arab—are treated as equals. (25) His meticulous deconstruction of Zionist myths lays bare the uncomfortable truth about Israel’s foundation and policies.
Evaluation of Shlomo Sand’s Theory
The Khazar hypothesis, which posits that Ashkenazi Jews primarily descend from the Khazars—a Turkic people who converted to Judaism in the 8th century—has been a subject of scholarly debate for decades. While Arthur Koestler’s The Thirteenth Tribe (1976) popularized this theory, it has not gained widespread acceptance in contemporary genetic research. Recent genetic studies indicate that Ashkenazi Jews possess substantial Middle Eastern ancestry, with varying degrees of European admixture. Sand’s assertion that 90% of modern Jews are descendants of the Khazars is not supported by empirical evidence. Although the historical conversion of the Khazars to Judaism is well-documented, its genetic impact on Ashkenazi Jewish populations appears to be negligible. The prevailing scholarly consensus maintains that Ashkenazi Jews trace their origins to ancient Israelite populations, with subsequent admixture from European groups over time.
One of Sand’s most significant contributions lies in his incisive deconstruction of a central tenet of Zionist historiography: the notion of an unbroken, ethnically homogeneous Jewish lineage extending from antiquity to the present. Through rigorous historical analysis, Sand demonstrates that Jewish identity has been shaped by a complex interplay of migration, conversion, and cultural transformation over centuries, rather than by a singular, uninterrupted ethnic continuity. By challenging the nationalist narratives that underpin Zionism, Sand invites readers to critically examine the constructed nature of modern national identities, including that of the Jewish people. His work underscores the fluidity and dynamism of identity formation, offering a counterpoint to essentialist interpretations of Jewish history.
Sand accurately situates the emergence of Jewish nationalism (Zionism) within the broader context of 19th-century European nationalist movements. He highlights the contributions of key figures such as Heinrich Graetz and Moses Hess, who played pivotal roles in shaping modern Jewish historiography and Zionist ideology. Sand argues that Jewish communities expanded significantly through conversion, particularly during the Hellenistic and Roman periods. While there is historical evidence to support the spread of Judaism in the ancient Mediterranean world, conversion was not the sole driver of Jewish demographic growth. Both genetic and historical research suggest a continuity between ancient Israelite populations and modern Jewish communities, alongside evidence of conversions throughout history. Thus, while Sand’s emphasis on conversion as a factor in Jewish history is valid, it represents only one dimension of a more complex demographic and cultural trajectory.
Sand advocates for the transformation of Israel into a pluralistic, democratic state that guarantees equal rights to all citizens, irrespective of ethnicity or religion. This vision aligns with liberal democratic principles and reflects a commitment to inclusivity and equality. However, its realization faces significant political and ideological challenges within the Israeli context. Sand also critiques discriminatory practices in Israel, particularly those affecting Palestinian citizens and other non-Jewish minorities. Issues such as unequal access to resources, restrictions on land ownership, and the implications of the Law of Return have been extensively documented. Israel’s definition as a Jewish state has sparked tension between its Jewish and non-Jewish citizens. Critics claim this framework perpetuates systemic inequalities, while supporters argue it preserves Jewish identity and ensures Jewish population security. Sand’s critique encourages discussion of these competing views, highlighting the tension between national identity and democratic values.
A key strength of Sand’s work is his clear distinction between anti-Zionism and anti-Semitism. While anti-Zionism pertains to criticism of Israeli policies or the Zionist political project, anti-Semitism involves prejudice or discrimination against Jews as a people. This distinction is crucial and is widely recognized in both scholarly and political discourse. By emphasizing this differentiation, Sand contributes to a more precise and informed discussion of contemporary debates surrounding Israel, Zionism, and Jewish identity.
In conclusion, Shlomo Sand’s work offers a provocative and thought-provoking critique of traditional narratives of Jewish history and identity. While some of his claims, such as the Khazar hypothesis, are not supported by current genetic evidence, his broader arguments about the constructed nature of national identities and the historical fluidity of Jewish communities are compelling. His call for a pluralistic and democratic Israel, alongside his critique of systemic inequalities, raises important questions about the future of Israeli society. Ultimately, Sand’s work challenges readers to reconsider entrenched historical narratives and to engage critically with the complexities of identity, nationalism, and democracy.
Bibliography
1) Shlomo Sand, The Invention of the Jewish People, (Tr: Yael Lotan), Verso: New York, 2009
2) Henry Ford, The International Jew, Dearborn Publishing Co: Michigan, 1920-1922
3). John Owen Beaty, Iron Curtain Over America, Wilkinson Pub co: Dallas, 1951
4) Arthur Koestler, The Thirteenth Tribe: The Khazar Empire and Its Heritage, Random House: New York, 1976
5) Shlomo Sand, Op. cit, p. 239-249
6) Shlomo Sand, Op. cit, p.1
7) Shlomo Sand, Op. cit, p.11
8) Shlomo Sand, Op. cit, p.62
9) Shlomo Sand, Op. cit, p.73-77
10) Moses Hess, Rome and Jerusalem: The Last Nationalist Questions, 1862 (Bloch Publishing Co: New York, 1918)
11) Shlomo Sand, Op. cit, p.78-81
12) Shlomo Sand, Op. cit, p.134-136
13) Shlomo Sand, Op. cit, p.150-154
14) Shlomo Sand, Op. cit, p.161-166
15) Shlomo Sand, Op. cit, p.255
16) Shlomo Sand, Op. cit, p.250.
17) Shlomo Sand, Op. cit, p.186
18) Shlomo Sand, Op. cit, p.250-252
19) Shlomo Sand, Op. cit, p.256-265
20) Shlomo Sand, Op. cit, p.286-288
21) Shlomo Sand, Op. cit, p.288-289
22) Shlomo Sand, Op. cit, p.289-290
23) Shlomo Sand, Op. cit, p.307
24) Shlomo Sand, Op. cit, p.304
25) Shlomo Sand, Op. cit, p.309-312
V.A. Mohamad Ashrof is an independent Indian scholar specializing in Islamic humanism.
8 March 2025
Source: countercurrents.org